Phoslock Published Papers on Safety and Efficacy

A comprehensive guide to peer-reviewed published articles on the safety and efficacy of Lanthanum Modified Bentonite (Phoslock®)

There are over 150 peer-reviewed publications on Phoslock® that specifically address its effectiveness, how long it lasts, and its impact on non-target organisms. Several standard ecotoxicity studies have been conducted on fish, water column invertebrates, and benthic invertebrates, all of which support the positive environmental impact and indicate no expected toxicity concerns at typical and recommended usage rates. The State of Washington Department of Ecology has independently reviewed Phoslock® and supports its use in the state with essentially no restrictions. Phoslock® has been used globally for many years to reduce phosphorus in waterbodies and can be combined with other lake management strategies to achieve desired outcomes. Hundreds of lakes worldwide have been treated with Phoslock®, and both large and small waterbodies in the United States use it on an annual basis. Phoslock® applications generally have not required state or federal permitting across the United States. Statewide in California, there has not been a requirement to permit, but the San Diego Regional Water Board has developed a permit (CRWQCBSDR 2021). No SEIS, NEPA assessments have been required historically to implement these projects. Phoslock® Environmental Information Lanthanum, a naturally occurring earth element, was found to have an average background level of 20.3 mg La/kg in soil samples collected throughout California, as per a soil study conducted by the University of California (Bradford et al. 1996). It is essential to comprehensively evaluate and manage potential environmental impacts associated with the use of a product. When Phoslock® is applied to water, lanthanum, in association with the clay, swiftly binds with phosphate (PO4) to form a highly stable mineral known as rhabdophane (LaPO4). This resulting rhabdophane complex exhibits very low solubility (Ksp < 10-27) and remains unaffected by changes in pH and redox reactions in waterbody sediments, making it non-bio-available. Lanthanum can only be extracted from rhabdophane in the laboratory using strong acid extraction methods. Laboratory studies with Phoslock® reveal that a minimal amount of lanthanum (~0.1%) is released within 24 hours when granular Phoslock® (250 mg/L) is dissolved in nano-pure water (unpublished). Studies on various animals and plant species have shown that lanthanum toxicity is generally very low. There are generally 2-5 orders of magnitude difference between application rate and toxicity. Field applications in the United States and internationally have not resulted in any observed fish mortality or adverse impacts. Data from different fish species indicate minimal risk to fish when Phoslock® is used at standard dose rates in aquatic environments. For example, a study on rainbow trout showed a 96-hour LC50 value of greater than 3,125 mg/L, and a 48-hour LC50 value of greater than 13,000 mg/L. Tests on zooplankton and daphnids also yielded high LC50 values, indicating low toxicity. Studies on benthic invertebrates showed no significant impacts or toxicity at or above anticipated use rates for Phoslock®. LOECs were calculated for each of these tests, and

produced a range of LOEC values from 400 mg/L to 50,000 mg/L. In addition, no field toxicity has been observed in invertebrate species. Overall, the margin of safety associated with Phoslock® toxicity is very high. The presence of lanthanum in water after a Phoslock® application poses very low potential exposure for humans due to its minimal bio-availability. Phoslock® and the associated lanthanum settle quickly to the lake sediments. Even in the event of exposure, lanthanum is efficiently processed by the liver and excreted without any observed negative impacts. Lanthanum is also used in a prescription drug called Fosrenol® to decrease blood phosphate levels in humans, with a Food and Drug Administration approved human dose rate of 750 to 3,000 mg/day. It would require a person to drink hundreds of gallons of water during application to receive a dose of lanthanum comparable to the daily intake of Fosrenol®. Additionally, drinking Phoslock® treated water directly after an application would pose negligible risk to human health. Furthermore, the risk of consuming Phoslock®/lanthanum in fish harvested from treated water after application is negligible, as evidenced by a field study. It was found that fish accumulate low levels of lanthanum only in liver and hepatopancreas tissues, not in the consumable flesh/muscles, and concentrations of lanthanum return to baseline levels within a few months (Landman et al. 2007).

Egemose, S., Reitzel, K., Anderson, F.O., Flindt, M. R. (2010). Chemical Lake Restoration Products: Sediment Stability and Phosphorus Dynamics. Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 985-991. DOI 10.1021/es903260y Cui, J., Wang, D., Lin, J., Wang, Y., Ren, M., Yang, Y., & Shi, P. (2021). New application of lanthanum- modified bentonite (Phoslock®) for immobilization of arsenic in sediments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 2052-2062. TRC (2017). Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for State of Washington Aquatic Plant and Algae Management. Final Report. Publication No. 17-10-020. Available at: https://apps.ecology.wa.gov/publications/documents/1710020.pdf Fuhrmann, B., Jones, A., Cortes, A., Vaughn, L. (2020). Enhancing Water Quality with Phosphorus Binding Technology. Presentation. Available at: https://resources.ca.gov/Initiatives/Blue-Ribbon- Committee-for-the-Rehabilitation-of-ClearLake/clearlake-technical-subcommittee-meeting-13 Bishop, W.M, McNabb, T., Cormican, I., Willis, B.E., Hyde, S. (2014). Operational Evaluation of Phoslock Phosphorus Locking Technology in Laguna Niguel Lake, California. Water Air Soil Pollution 225:2018. DOI 10.1007/s11270-014-2018-6 (CRWQCBSDR) California Regional Water Quality Control Board San Diego Region (2021). General National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit for the Discharge of Lanthanum- Modified Clay to Surface Waters of the United States in the San Diego Region. Order R9-2021- 0056. Available at: https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/sandiego/board_decisions/adopted_orders/2021/r9-20210056.pdf

Bradford, G. R., Chang, A. C., Page, A. L., Bakhtar, D., Frampton, J. A., & Wright, H. (1996). Background concentrations of trace and major elements in California soils. Kearney Foundation Special Report, University of California, Riverside, 1-52. TRC. (2017). Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for State of Washington Aquatic Plant and Algae Management. Final Report. Publication No. 17-10-020. Available at: https://apps.ecology.wa.gov/publications/documents/1710020.pdf SePRO. (2012). An Overview of Phoslock and Use in Aquatic Environments. SePRO, Phoslock Technical Information. Available at: https://www.sepro.com/documents/Phoslock/TechInfo/Phoslock%20Technical%20Bulletin.pdf Landman M., Brijs J., Glover C. and N. Ling. (2007). Lake Okareka and Tikitapu Fish Health Monitoring, 2007. Scion Report. October 2007. (OEHHA) California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. (2018). Clear Lake Advisories. Accessible at: https://oehha.ca.gov/advisories/clear-lake

Historically Published papers on Phoslock® 2020 Behets, G.J., Mubiana, K.V., Lamberts, L., Finsterle, K., Traill, N., Blust, R. & D’Haese, P.C. 2020. Use of lanthanum for water treatment: A matter of concern? Chemosphere.239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124780

Cabrerizo, M.J., Álvarez-Manzaneda, M.I., León-Palmero, E., Guerrero-Jiménez, G., de Senerpont Domis, L.N., Teurlincx, S., González-Olalla, J.M., 2020. Warming and CO2 effects under oligotrophication on temperate phytoplankton communities. Water Research, 173, 115579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115579

Mucci, M., Douglas, G., Lürling, M., 2020. Lanthanum modified bentonite behaviour and efficiency in adsorbing phosphate in saline waters. Chemosphere, 249, 126131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126131

van Oosterhout, F., Waajen, G., Yasseri, S., Marinho, M.M., Noyma, N.P., Mucci, M., Douglas, G. and Lurling, M. 2020. Lanthanum in Water, Sediment, Macrophytes and chironomid larvae following application of Lanthanum modified bentonite to lake Rauwbraken (The Netherlands). Science of the Total Environment. 706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135188

2019 Álvarez-Manzaneda, I., Baun, A., Cruz-Pizarro, L., de Vicente, I., 2019. Ecotoxicity screening of novel phosphorus adsorbents used for lake restoration. Chemosphere, 222, 469-478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.103

Burford, M.A et al. 2019. Solutions for managing cyanobacterial blooms: A scientific summary for policy makers. pages 1-15. IOC/UNESCO, Paris (IOC/INF – 1382). Download PDF below. 

Solutions for managing cyanobacterial blooms

Behets, G.J., Mubiana, K.V., Lamberts, L., Finsterle, K., Traill, N., Blust, R. & D’Haese, P.C. 2020. Use of lanthanum for water treatment: A matter of concern? Chemosphere Volume 239, January 2020. In Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124780

de Lucena-Silva, D., Molozzi, J., dos Santos Severiano, J., Becker, V.& de Lucena Barbosa, J.E. 2019. Removal efficiency of phosphorus, cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins by the “flock & sink” mitigation technique in semi-arid eutrophic waters. Water Research. 159. 262273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.04.057

D'Haese, D.P., Douglas, G., Verhulst, A., Neven, E., Behets, G.J., Vervaet, B.A., Finsterle, K., Lurling, M., Spears, B. 2019. Chemosphere. Human Health Risk associated with the management of phosphorus in freshwaters using lanthanum and aluminium. 220. pgs 286-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.093

Zamparas, M., Kapsalis, V.C., Kanteraki, A.E., Vardoulakis, E., Kyriakopoulos, G.L., & Kalavrouziotis I.K. 2019. Novel composite materials as P-adsorption agents and their potential application as fertilizers, Global NEST Journal, 21(1), 48-57. https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.002752

2018 Bishop, W.M. & Richardson, R.J. 2018. Influence of Phoslock® on legacy phosphorus, nutrient ratios, and algal assemblage composition in hypereutrophic water resources. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 25: 4544.

http://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0832-2

Ding, S., Sun, Q., Chen, X., Liu, Q., Wang, D., Lin, J., Zhang, C., Tsang, D.C.W., 2018. Synergistic adsorption of phosphorus by iron in lanthanum modified bentonite (Phoslock®): New insight into sediment phosphorus immobilization. Water Research, 134, 3243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.055

Funes, A., Martínez, F.J., Álvarez-Manzaneda, I., Conde-Porcuna, J.M., de Vicente, J., Guerrero, F. and de Vicente, I. 2018. Determining major factors controlling phosphorus removal by promising adsorbents used for lake restoration: A linear mixed model approach. Water Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.029

Kasprzyka, M., Obarska-Pempkowiaka, H., Masib, F. & Gajewskaa, M. 2018. Possibilities of Phoslock® application to remove phosphorus compounds from wastewater treated in hybrid wetlands. Ecological Engineering. 122. 84-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.07.020

Mucci, M., Maliaka, V., Noyma, N.P., Marinho, M.M., Lürling, M., 2018. Assessment of possible solid-phase phosphate sorbents to mitigate eutrophication: Influence of pH and anoxia. Science of The Total Environment, 619–620, 1431–1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.198

Reitzel, B.K., Jensen, H.S., 2018. Test of lanthanum dispersion from Phoslock under a range of different laboratory conditions. University of South Denmark. 1–29.

Yin, H., Douglas, G.B., Cai, Y., Liu, C., Copetti D., 2018. Remediation of internal phosphorus loads with modified clays, influence of fluvial suspended particulate matter and response of the benthic macroinvertebrate community. Science of the Total Environment 610–611, 101–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.243

2017 Bishop, W.M. & Willis, B.E. 2017. Comparison of water resource management programs: An algae action threshold level approach. Open Journal of Applied Sciences. 7 (2). 31-41. http://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2017.72003

Epe, T.S., Finsterle, K., Yasseri, S., 2017. Nine years of phosphorus management with lanthanum modified bentonite (Phoslock®) in a eutrophic, shallow swimming lake in Germany, Lake and Reservoir Management, 33(2) 119 – 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2016.1263693

Kasprzyk, M. & Gajewska, M. 2017. Preliminary results from application Phoslock to remove phosphorus compounds from wastewater. Journal of Ecological Engineering. 18 (4) 82-89. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/74275

Kurzbaum, E., Raizner, Y., Cohen, O., Rubinstein, G. & Bar Shalom, O. 2017. Lanthanummodified bentonite: potential of efficient removal of phosphates from fishpond effluents. Environment Science and Pollution Research International. 24(17):15182-15186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9116-0

Lin, J., Zhong, Y., Fan, H., Song, C., Yu, C., Gao, Y., Xiong, X., Wu, C. & Liu, J. 2017. Chemical treatment of contaminated sediment for phosphorus control and subsequent effects on ammonia-oxidizing and ammonia-denitrifying microorganisms and on submerged macrophyte revegetation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 1007-1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7828-1

Lürling, M., Waajen, G., Engels, B., van Oosterhout, F., 2017. Effects of Dredging and Lanthanum-Modified Clay on Water Quality Variables in an Enclosure Study in a hypertrophic Pond. Water, 9(6), 380. http://doi.org/10.3390/w9060380

Nürnberg, G.K., 2017. Attempted management of cyanobacteria by Phoslock (lanthanummodified clay) in Canadian lakes: water quality results and predictions. Lake and Reservoir Management, 33(20, 163 – 170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2016.1265618

Reitzel, K., Balslev, K.A. & Jensen, H.S. 2017. The influence of lake water alkalinity and humic substances on particle dispersion and lanthanum desorption from Phoslock. Water Research. In Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.08.044

Waajen, G., Pauwels, M. & Lurling, M. 2017. Effects of combined flocculant – Lanthanum modified bentonite treatment on aquatic macro invertebrate fauna. Water Research. In press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.05.075

Waajen, G., van Oosterhout, F., Lürling, M., 2017. Bio-Accumulation of Lanthanum from Lanthanum Modified Bentonite treatments in lake restoration. Environmental Pollution, 230, 911-918. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.046

Wang, Y., Ding, S., Wang, D., Sun, Q., Lin, J., Shi, L., Chen, M. and Zhang, C. 2017. Static layer: A key to immobilisation of phosphorus in sediments amended with lanthanum modified bentonite (Phoslock®). Chemical Engineering Journal. 325. 49-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.05.039 2016 Copetti, D., Finsterle, K., Marziali, L., Stefani, F., Gianni Tartari, G., Douglas, G., Reitzel, K., Spears, B., Winfield, I.J., Crosa, G., D’Haese, P., Yasseri, S. & Lürling, M. 2016. Eutrophication management in surface waters using lanthanum-modified bentonite: a review. Journal of Water Research. 97. 162-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.056

Dithmer, L., Nielsen, U.G., Lürling, M., Spears, B.M., Yasseri, S., Lundberg, D., Moore, A., Jensen, N.D. & Reitzel, K. 2016. Responses in sediment phosphorus and lanthanum concentrations composition across 10 lakes following applications of lanthanum modified bentonite. Water Research. 97. 101-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.011 Dithmer, L., Nielsen, U.G., Lundberg, D. & Reitzel, K. 2016. Influence of dissolved organic carbon on the efficiency of P sequestration by a lanthanum modified clay. Water Research. 97. 39-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.07.003

Herrmann, H., Nolde, J., Berger, S., Heise, S., 2016. Aquatic ecotoxicity of lanthanum - A review and an attempt to derive water and sediment quality criteria. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 124, 213– 238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.09.033

Douglas, G.B., Hamilton, D.P, Robb, M.S., Pan, G., Spears, B.M & Lurling, M. 2016. Guiding principles for the development and application of solid-state phosphorus adsorbents for freshwater ecosystems. Aquatic Ecology. 1-21. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s10452-016-9575-2 Douglas, G.B., Lurling, M & Spears, B.M. 2016. Assessment of changes in potential nutrient limitation in an impounded river after application of lanthanum-modified bentonite. Water Research. 97. 47-54. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.005

Epe, T.S., Finsterle, K., Yasseri, S. 2016. Nine years of phosphorus management with lanthanum modified bentonite (Phoslock) in a eutrophic, shallow swimming lake in Germany. Lake Reservoir Management. 00:1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2016.1263693

Kurzbaum, E. & Shalom, O.B. 2016. The potential of phosphate removal from dairy wastewater and municipal wastewater effluents using a lanthanum-modified bentonite. Applied Clay Science. 123. 182-186. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.clay.2016.01.038

Lang, P., Meis, S., Procházková, L., Carvalho, L.,Mackay, E.B., Woods, H.J., Pottie, J., Milne, I., Taylor, C., Maberly, S.C. & Spears, B.M. 2016. Phytoplankton community responses in a shallow lake following lanthanum-bentonite application. Water Research. 55-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.018

Lin, J., Zhong, Y., Fan, H., Song, C., Yu, C., Gao, Y., Xiong, X., Wu, C., Liu, J., 2016. Chemical treatment of contaminated sediment for phosphorus control and subsequent effects on ammonia oxidizing and ammonia-denitrifying microorganisms and on submerged macrophyte revegetation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24, 1007 - 1018. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7828-1

Liu, S., Li, J., Yang, Y., Wang, J., Ding, H., 2016. Influence of environmental factors on the phosphorus adsorption of lanthanum-modified bentonite in eutrophic water and sediment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(3), 2487-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5453-z

Noyma, N.P., de Magalhães, L., Furtado, L.L., Mucci, M., van Oosterhout, F., Huszar, V.L., Marinho, M.M., Lürling, M., 2016. Controlling cyanobacterial blooms through

effective flocculation and sedimentation with combined use of flocculants and phosphorus adsorbing natural soil and modified clay. Water Research, 97, 26-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.057

Nürnberg, G.K. & LaZerte, B.D. 2016. Trophic state decrease after lanthanum-modified bentonite (Phoslock) application to a hyper-eutrophic polymictic urban lake frequented by Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Lake and Reservoir Management. 32(1), 74-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402381.2015.1133739

Schindler, D.W., Carpenter, S.R., Chapra, S.C., Hecky, R.E. & Orihel, D.M. 2016. Reducing phosphorus to curb lake eutrophication is a success. Environmental Science and Technology. 50(17). 8923-8929. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02204

Spears, B.M., Mackay, E.B., Yasseri, S., Gunn, I.D.M., Waters, K.E., Andrews, C., Cole, S., de Ville, M., Kelly, A., Meis, S., Moore, A.L., Nürnberg, G.K., van Oosterhout, F., Pitt, J., Madgwick, G., Woods, H.J. & Lürling, M. 2016. A meta-analysis of water quality and aquatic macrophyte responses in 18 lakes treated with lanthanum modified bentonite (PHOSLOCK®). Water Research. 97.111-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.08.020

Su, Y., Zhang, C., Liu, J., Weng, Y., Li, H., Zhang, D., 2016. Assessing the impacts of phosphorus inactive clay on phosphorus release control and phytoplankton community structure in eutrophic lakes. Environmental Pollution, 219, 620-630. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.029

Waajen, G., van Oosterhout, F., Douglas, G. & Lürling, M. 2016. Management of eutrophication in Lake De Kuil (The Netherlands) using combined flocculant Lanthanum modified bentonite treatment. Water Research. 97.83-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.034

Waajen, G., van Oosterhout, F., Douglas, G. & Lurling, M. 2016. Geo-engineering experiments in two urban ponds to control eutrophication. Water Research. 97. pg 69-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.070

Wang, C., Bai, L., Jiang, H.L., Xu, H., 2016. Algal bloom sedimentation induces variable control of lake eutrophication by phosphorus inactivating agents. Science of the Total Environment, 557–558, 479–488. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.082

Wang, C., Jiang, H.L., Xu, H., Yin, H., 2016. Variation of physicochemical properties of drinking water treatment residuals and Phoslock® induced by fulvic acid adsorption: Implication for lake restoration. Environmental Science Pollution Research, 23(1), 351-65. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5209-9

Yasseri, S. & Epe, T.S. 2016. Analysis of the La:P ratio in lake sediments - Vertical and spatial distribution assessed by a multiple-core survey. Water Research. 97. 96-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.07.037

Yin,H., Kong, M., Han, M. & Fan, C. 2016. Influence of sediment resuspension on the efficacy of geoengineering materials in the control of internal phosphorous loading from shallow eutrophic lakes. Environmental Pollution. 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.011 2015 Dithmer, L., Lipton, A.S., Reitzel, K., Warner, T.E., Lundberg, D. & Nielsen, U. 2015. Characterization of phosphate sequestration by a lanthanum modified bentonite clay: A solidstate NMR, EXAFS and PXRD study” Environmental Science and Technology. 49 (7), 4559– 4566. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es506182s

Komaba, H., Kakuta, T., Suzuki, H., Hida, M., Suga, T., Fukagawa, M., 2015. Survival advantage of lanthanum carbonate for hemodialysis patients with uncontrolled hyperphosphatemia. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 30(1), 107-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfu335

Lin, J., Qiu, P., Yan, X., Xiong, X., Jing, L. & Wu, C. 2015. Effectiveness and Mode of Action of Calcium Nitrate and Phoslock® in Phosphorus Control in Contaminated Sediment, a Microcosm Study. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 226-330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-015-2590-4

Seger, A., Dorantes-Aranda, J.J., Muller, M.N., Body, A., Peristy, A., Place, A.R., Park, T.G. & Hallegraeff, G. 2015. Mitigating Fish-Killing Prymnesium parvum Algal Blooms in Aquaculture Ponds with Clay: The Importance of pH and Clay Type. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 3(2), 154-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse3020154

Tekile, A., Kim,I & Kim, J. 2015. Mini-review on river eutrophication and bottom improvement techniques, with special emphasis on the Nakdong River. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 30, 113-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2014.10.014

Wei, X. & Lu, S. 2015. Effects of inactivation agents and temperature on phosphorus release from sediment in Dianchi Lake, China. Environmental Earth Sciences. 74. 3857–3865. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s12665-014-3910-5

Yamada-Ferraza, T.M., Sueitt, A.P.E., Oliveira, A.F., Botta, C.M.R., Pedro S. Fadini, P.S., Nascimento, M.R.L, Faria, B.M. & Mozeto, A.A. 2015. Assessment of Phoslock application in a tropical eutrophic reservoir: An integrated evaluation from laboratory to field experiments. Environmental Technology & Innovation. 4, 194-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2015.07.002 2014 Bishop, W.M., McNabb, T., Cormican, I., Willis, B.E., Hyde, S., 2014. Operational evaluation of Phoslock phosphorus locking technology in Laguna Niguel Lake, California. Water, Air & Soil Pollution, 225 (7), 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2018-6

Gunn, I.D.M., Meis, S., Maberly, S.C., Spears, B.M., 2014. Assessing the responses of aquatic macrophytes to the application of a lanthanum modified bentonite clay, at Loch Flemington, Scotland, UK. Hydrobiologia 737(1), 309-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-013-1765-5

Lürling, M., Van Oosterhout, F., Waajen, G., 2014. Humic substances interfere with phosphate removal by lanthanum modified clay in controlling eutrophication. Water Research, 54, 78-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.059

Mackay, E.B., Maberly, S.C., Pan, G., Reitzel, K., Bruere, A., Corker, N., Douglas, G., Egemose, S., Hamilton, D., Hatton-Ellis, T., Huser, B., Li, W., Meis, S., Moss, B., Lürling, M., Phillips, G., Yasseri, S., Spears, B.M., 2014. Geoengineering in lakes: welcome attraction or fatal distraction? Inland Waters, 4(4), 349 - 356. http://dx.doi.org/10.5268/IW-4.4.769

Moss, M.T., Taffs, K.H., Longstaff, B.J., Ginn, B.K., 2014. Establishing ecological reference conditions and tracking post-application effectiveness of lanthanum saturated bentonite clay (Phoslock®) for reducing phosphorous in aquatic ecosystems: an applied paleolimnological approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 141, 77-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.02.038

Novak, P.A. and Chambers, J.M., 2014. Investigation of nutrient thresholds to guide restoration and management of two impounded rivers in south-western Australia. Ecological Engineering, 68, 116-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.03.091

Spears, B.M., Maberly, S.C., Pan, G, Mackay, E., Bruere. A., Corker. N., Douglas, G., Egemose, S., Hamilton, D., Hatton-Ellis, T., Huser, B., Li,W., Meis, S., Moss, B., Luerling, M., Phillips, G., Yasseri, S., Reitzel, K., 2014. Geoengineering in lakes: a crisis of confidence? Environmental Science & Technology, 48(17), 9977–9979. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5036267

Van Oosterhout, F., Goitom, E., Roessink, I., Lürling, M., 2014. Lanthanum from a modified clay used in eutrophication control is bioavailable to the Marbled crayfish (Procambarus fallax f. virginalis). Plos One, 9(7), e102410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102410

Zamparas, M. and Zacharias, I., 2014. Restoration of eutrophic freshwater by managing internal nutrient loads. A review. Science of The Total Environment, 496, 551-562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.07.076 2013 Crosa, G., Yasseri, S., Nowak, K.E., Canziani, A., Roella, V., Zaccara, S., 2013. Recovery of Lake Varese: reducing trophic status through internal P load capping. Fundamental and Applied Limnology, 183(1), 49 – 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/1863-9135/2013/0427

Lürling, M. and van Oosterhout, F., 2013a. Controlling eutrophication by combined bloom precipitation and sediment phosphorus inactivation. Water Research, 47(17), 6527-6537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.08.019

Lürling, M. and Van Oosterhout, F., 2013b. Case study on the efficacy of a lanthanum enriched clay (Phoslock®) in controlling eutrophication in Lake Het Groene Eiland (The Netherlands). Hydrobiologia, 710(1), 253-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1141-x

Márquez-Pacheco, H., Hansen, A.M., Falcón-Rojas, A., 2013. Phosphorous control in a eutrophied reservoir. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20(12), 8446-8456. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1701-2

Meis, S., Spears, B.M., Maberly, S.C., O'Malley, M.B., Perkins, R.G., 2013. Assessing the mode of action of Phoslock® in the control of phosphorus release from the bed sediments in a shallow lake (Loch Flemington, UK). Water Research, 47 (13), 4460-4473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.017

Ohtake, T., Kobayashi, S., Oka, M., Furuya, R., Iwagami, M., Tsutsumi, D., Mochida, Y., Maesato, K., Ishioka, K., Moriya, H., Hidaka, S., 2013. Lanthanum Carbonate Delays Progression of Coronary Artery Calcification Compared With Calcium-Based Phosphate Binders in Patients on Hemodialysis: A Pilot Study. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 18 (5), 439-446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1074248413486355

Reitzel, K., Andersen, F.Ø., Egemose, S., Jensen, H.S., 2013. Phosphate adsorption by lanthanum modified bentonite clay in fresh and brackish water. Water Research, 47(8), 27872796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.02.051

Reitzel, K., Lotter, S., Dubke, M., Egemose, S., Jensen, H.S., Andersen, F.Ø., 2013. Effects of Phoslock® treatment and chironomids on the exchange of nutrients between sediment and water. Hydrobiologia, 703(1), 189-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1358-8

Spears, B.M., Meis, S., Anderson, A., Kellou, M., 2013. Comparison of phosphorus (P) removal properties of materials proposed for the control of sediment P release in UK lakes. Science of The Total Environment, 442, 103-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.09.066

Spears, B.M., Lürling, M., Yasseri, S., Castro-Castellon, A.T., Gibbs, M., Meis, S., McDonald, C., McIntosh, J., Sleep, D., Van Oosterhout, F., 2013. Lake responses following lanthanummodified bentonite clay (Phoslock®) application: an analysis of water column lanthanum data from 16 case study lakes. Water Research, 47(15), 5930-5942. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.07.016

Spears, B.M., Dudley, B., Reitzel, K., Rydin, E., 2013. Geo-Engineering in Lakes-A Call for Consensus. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 3953-3954. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es401363w

Van Oosterhout, F. and Lürling, M., 2013. The effect of phosphorus binding clay (Phoslock®) in mitigating cyanobacterial nuisance: a laboratory study on the effects on water quality variables and plankton. Hydrobiologia, 710, 265-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1206-x 2012 Liu, B., Liu, X.G., Yang, J., Garman, D., Zhang, K., Zhang, H.G., 2012. Research and application of in-situ control technology for sediment rehabilitation in eutrophic water bodies. Water Science & Technology, 65 (7), 1190-1199. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.927

Lürling, M. and Faasen, E.J., 2012. Controlling toxic cyanobacteria: effects of dredging and phosphorus-binding clay on cyanobacteria and microcystins. Water Research, 46 (5), 14471459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.008

Meis, S., 2012. Investigating Forced Recovery from Eutrophication in Shallow Lakes (Ph.D. thesis). Cardiff University, United Kingdom. http://orca.cf.ac.uk/id/eprint/45439

Meis, S., Spears, B.M., Maberly, S.C., Perkins, R.G., 2012. Sediment amendment with Phoslock® in Clatto reservoir (Dundee, UK): Investigating changes in sediment elemental composition and phosphorus fractionation. Journal of Environmental Management, 93(1), 185193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.09.015

SEPRO., 2012. Phoslock Phosphorus Locking Technology: An Overview of Phoslock and Use in Aquatic Environments. SEPRO Corporation, USA.

Van Oosterhout, F. and Lürling, M., 2012. Effects of the novel ‘flock & lock’ lake restoration technique on Daphnia in Lake Rauwbraken (The Netherlands). Journal of Plankton Research, 33(2), 255-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbq092

Zamparas, M., Gianni, A., Stathi, P., Deligiannakis, Y., Zacharias, I., 2012. Removal of phosphate from natural waters using innovative modified bentonites. Applied Clay Science, 6263, 101-106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2012.04.020 2011 Damment, S., Secker, R., Shen, V., Lorenzo, V., Rodriguez, M., 2011. Long-term treatment with lanthanum carbonate reduces mineral and bone abnormalities in rats with chronic renal failure. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 26(6), 1803-1812. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfq682

Davies, S., 2011. Phoslock Risk Assessment: An overview of the risks to the aquatic environment associated with the use of Phoslock. Phoslock Europe GmbH.

Damment, S.J.P., 2011. Pharmacology of the phosphate binder, Lanthanum carbonate. Renal Failure, 33 (2), 217-224. https://doi.org/10.3109/0886022X.2011.552821

Geurts, J.J.M., van de Wouw, P.A.G., Smolders, A.J.P., Roelofs, J.G.M., Lamers, L.P.M., 2011. Ecological restoration on former agricultural soils: feasibility of in situ phosphate fixation as an alternative to top soil removal. Ecological Engineering, 37(11), 1620-1629.

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Gibbs, M., Hickey, C.W., Özkundakci, D., 2011. Sustainability assessment and comparison of efficacy of four P-inactivation agents for managing internal phosphorus loads in lakes: sediment incubations. Hydrobiologia, 658(1), 253-275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10750-010-0477-3

Van Oosterhout, F., Lürling, M., 2011. Effects of the novel “Flock & Lock” lake restoration technique on Daphnia in Lake Rauwbraken (The Netherlands). J. Plankton Res. 33, 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbq092 2010 Egemose, S., Reitzel, K., Andersen, F.Ø., Flindt, M.R., 2010. Chemical lake restoration products: sediment stability and phosphorus dynamics. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(3), 985-991. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903260y

Groves, S., 2010. Eco-toxicity Assessment of Phoslock. Report number: TR 022/09. Phoslock Water Solutions Ltd, Australia.

Lürling, M. and Tolman, Y., 2010. Effects of lanthanum and lanthanum-modified clay on growth, survival and reproduction of Daphnia magna. Water Research, 44 (1), 309-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.09.034 2009 Afsar, A., Groves, S., 2009. Comparison of P-inactivation efficacy and ecotoxicity of Alum and Phoslock®. PWS Rep. Number IR.

Bervoets, A.R., Behets, G.J., Schryvers, D., Roels, F., Yang, Z., Verberckmoes, S.C., Damment, S.J., Dauwe, S., Mubiana, V.K., Blust, R., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2009. Hepatocellular transport and gastrointestinal absorption of lanthanum in chronic renal failure. Kidney International, 75(4), 389-398. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ki.2008.571

Damment, S.J., Cox, A.G., Secker, R., 2009. Dietary administration in rodent studies distorts the tissue deposition profile of lanthanum carbonate; brain deposition is a contamination artefact? Toxicology Letters, 188 (3), 223-229.

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Haghseresht, F., Wang, S.B., Do, D.D., 2009. A novel lanthanum modified bentonite, Phoslock®, for phosphate removal from wastewaters. Applied Clay Science, 46 (4), 369-375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2009.09.009

Hickey, C.W. and Gibbs, M.M., 2009. Lake sediment phosphorus release management decision support and risk assessment framework. New Zealand Journal of Marine Freshwater Research, 43 (3), 819-856. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288330909510043

Hutchison, A.J., Barnett, M.E., Krause, R.J., Siami, G.A., 2009. Lanthanum carbonate study group. Lanthanum carbonate treatment, for up to 6 years, is not associated with adverse effects on the liver in patients with chronic kidney disease stage 5 receiving hemodialysis. Clinical Nephrology, 71(3), 286 - 289.

MOE., 2009. Phoslock Toxicity Testing with Three Sediment Dwelling Organisms (Hyalella Azteca, Hexagenia spp. and Chironomus dilutes) and Two Water Column Dwelling Organisms (Rainbow Trout and Daphnia magna). Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Ontario.

Neven, E., Dams, G., Postnov, A., Chen, B., De Clerck, N., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., Persy, V., 2009. Adequate phosphate binding with lanthanum carbonate attenuates arterial calcification in chronic renal failure rats. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 24 (6), 1790-1799. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfn737

Persy, V.P., Behets, G.J., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2009. Management of hyperphosphatemia in patients with end-stage renal disease: focus on lanthanum carbonate. International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease, 2, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.2147/ijnrd.s5007

Phoslock Water Solutions Ltd., 2009. Toxicity Assessment of Phoslock & Lanthanum to Human Health. Report number: TR 023/09. Australia.

Watson – Leung, T., 2009. Phoslock® Toxicity Testing with Three Sediment Dwelling Organisms (Hyalella azteca, Hexagenia spp. and Chironomus dilutus) and Two Water Column Dwelling Organisms (Rainbow Trout and Daphnia magna). Aquatic Toxicology Unit, Laboratory Services Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment Etobicoke.

Yungen, L., Kun, T., Winks, A., 2009. Water Eutrophication Prevention by Phoslock Flocculation and Sediment Capping Reaction. International Conference on Environmental Science and Information Application Technology, 349-352. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/esiat.2009.316 2008 Damment, S.J. and Pennick, M., 2008. Clinical pharmacokinetics of the phosphate binder lanthanum carbonate. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 47 (9), 553-563. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200847090-00001

Ecotox, 2008. Toxicity Assessment of Granulated Phoslock® to the Cladoceran Ceriodaphnia dubia. ECOTOX Services, Australia.

Ross, G., Haghseresht, F., Cloete, T.E., 2008. The effect of pH and anoxia on the performance of Phoslock®, a phosphorus binding clay. Harmful Algae, 7(4), 545-550. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2007.12.007

Vopel, K., Gibbs, M., Hickey, C.W., Quinn, J., 2008. Modification of sedimentewater solute exchange by sediment-capping materials: effects on O2 and pH. Marine & Freshwater Research, 59(12), 1101 - 1110. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF08130 2007 Altmann, P., Barnett, M.E., Finn, W.F., 2007. Cognitive function in stage 5 chronic kidney disease patients on hemodialysis: No adverse effects of lanthanum carbonate compared with standard phosphate-binder therapy. Kidney International, 71(3), 252-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5001932

EnTox, 2007. Risk Assessment – Human health risk of elevated lanthanum in drinking water resources. National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicity. 2006

Bervoets, A.R., Oste, L., Behets, G.J., Dams, G., Blust, R., Marynissen, R., Geryl, H., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2006. Development and reversibility of impaired mineralization associated with lanthanum carbonate treatment in chronic renal failure rats. Bone, 38 (6), 803810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2005.11.022

Ecotox, 2006a. Toxicity Assessment of Two PhoslockTM Formulations to the Eastern Rainbowfish. ECOTOX Services, Australia.

Ecotox, 2006b. Toxicity Assessment of PhoslockTM to the Freshwater Shrimp Macrobrachium sp. ECOTOX Services, Australia.

Landman, M., Brijs, J., Glover, C., Ling, N., 2006. Lake Okareka and Tikitapu fish health monitoring. Environment Bay of, New Zealand.

Pennick, M., Dennis, K., Damment, S.J., 2006. Absolute bioavailability and disposition of lanthanum in healthy human subjects administered lanthanum carbonate. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 46 (7), 738-746. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0091270006289846

Persy, V.P., Behets, G.J., Bervoets, A.R., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2006. Lanthanum: a safe phosphate binder. Seminars in Dialysis, 19(3), 195-199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-139X.2006.00169.x

2005 Behets, G.J., Verberckmoes, S.C., Oste, L., Bervoets, A.R., Salome, M., Cox, A.G., Denton, J., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2005. Localization of lanthanum in bone of chronic renal failure rats after oral dosing with lanthanum carbonate. Kidney International, 67(5), 1830-1836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00281.x 2004 Behets, G.J., Verberckmoes, S.C., D'Haese, P.C., De Broe, M.E., 2004a. Lanthanum carbonate: a new phosphate binder. Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension, 13(4), 403-409. http://doi.org/10.1097/01.mnh.0000133973.86816.e9

Behets, G.J., Dams, G., Vercauteren, S.R., Damment, S.J., Bouillon, R., De Broe, M.E., D'Haese, P.C., 2004b. Does the phosphate binder lanthanum carbonate affect bone in rats with chronic renal failure? Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 15(8), 2219-2228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ASN.0000133022.32912.95

Clearwater, S.J., 2004. Chronic exposure of Midge Larvae to Phoslock. NIWA, Australia, pp.25

Douglas, G.B., Robb, M.S., Coad, D.N., Ford, P.W., 2004. A review of solid phase adsorbents for the removal of phosphorus from natural and waste waters. In: Valsami-Jones, E. (Ed.), Phosphorus in Environmental Technology e Removal, Recovery, Applications. IWA Publishing, pp. 291-320 (Chapter 13).

Martin, M.L.H., Hickey, C.W., 2004. Determination of HSNO Ecotoxic Thresholds for Granular Phoslock (Eureka 1 Formulation) Phase 1: Acute Toxicity. NIWA Report Number HAM2004-137. NIWA, New Zealand. 2003 D'Haese, P.C., Spasovski, G.B., Sikole, A., Hutchison, A., Freemont, T.J., Sulkova, S., Swanepoel, C., Pejanovic, S., Djukanovic, L., Balducci, A., Coen, G., Sulowicz, W., Ferreira, A., Torres, A., Curic, S., Popovic, M., Dimkovic, N., De Broe, M.E., 2003. A multicenter study on the effects of lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol®) and calcium carbonate on renal bone disease in dialysis patients. Kidney International,63 (85), 73-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.63.s85.18.x

Robb, M., Greenop, B., Goss, Z., Douglas, G., Adeney, J., 2003. Application of Phoslock®, an innovative phosphorus binding clay, to two Western Australian waterways: preliminary findings. Hydrobiologia, 494(3), 237-243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025478618611 2001 NICNAS, 2001. National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme Full Public Report Lanthanum Modified Clay NA/899. 2000 Barry, M.J. and Meehan, B.J., 2000. The acute and chronic toxicity of lanthanum to Daphnia carinata. Chemosphere, 41(10), 1669-1674. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00091-6

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Stauber, J.L., Binet, M.T., 2000. Canning River Phoslock Field Trial - Ecotoxicology Testing. CSIRO Centre for Advanced Analytical Chemistry Energy Technology Final Report, Report number: ET317R. 1999 Douglas, G.B., Adeney, J.A., Robb, M., 1999. A novel technique for reducing bioavailable phosphorus. In International Association Water Quality Conference on Diffuse Pollution, (Vol. 517523).